In the Russian Federation, all educational programs are of two types (cf. Diagram):

1. General education;
2. Professional education.

General education is aimed at the intellectual, moral, emotional, and physical development of the individual; at shaping his or her general cultural level; at developing his or her ability to adapt himself or herself to life in society, and at the setting of the foundations which will enable individuals to make a conscious choice of a professional education programme and to cope with it. General education comprises:

1. Pre-school education;
2. Primary general education;
3. Basic general education;
4. Secondary (complete) general education.

Professional education is aimed at the continued development of an individual in the process of which he or she acquires a professional qualification and at the preparation of graduates to exercise a profession. Since in the Russian Federation all programs, except general education programs, lead to diplomas or to diplomas and degrees as well as to professional qualifications and give the right to exercise professions, they are called professional education programs. Thus, professional education covers the following:

1. Vocational education (nachalnoye professionalnoye obrazovanie);
2. Non-university level higher education (sredneye professionalnoye obrazovanie);
3. University level higher education (vyssheye professionalnoye obrazovanie);
4. Postgraduate education including doctoral study programmes (poslevuzovskoye professionalnoye obrazovanie).

LANGUAGES OF INSTRUCTION

The principal language of instruction is Russian. The study of Russian as the state language of the Russian Federation in all State-accredited educational establishments, except pre-school institutions, is regulated according to the State educational standard.

The citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to receive their basic general education in their native languages as well as to choose their languages of instruction within the range of possibilities offered by the educational system. The language (languages) in which education and training are conducted are selected by the founder(s) and/or by the statutes of given educational establishments.

FORMS OF EDUCATION

There are different forms of education: full-time, part-time (evening and correspondence course programs), and so-called externat (a form of education that enables individuals to study independently and to take examinations). The Government of the Russian Federation establishes a list of specialties for which part-time study and externat are forbidden. The minimum requirements as to the content of education and to the knowledge and skills of graduates, set up by the State educational standard, do not depend on the form of education, and for part-time education and externat, they are the same as for full-time studies.

The number of part-time students constitutes about one third of the total number of students. Part-time students devote the majority of their time to independent studies. In order to compensate in part-time studies for the decrease in contact time, specific education technologies are used: special instructional materials and aids, forms of distance education, modern communication and information technologies, and individual and collective consultations. The number of part-time students studying in a given group is smaller than that of full-time students.

GENERAL EDUCATION

General education comprises three stages corresponding to the levels of educational programs: primary general education (as a rule, the standard duration is four years); basic general education (the standard duration is five years); secondary (complete) general education (the standard duration is two to three years).

General education programs now comprise eleven years of studies, while before 1985, they lasted ten years. The extension of total duration occurred at the expense of an earlier school enrolment at the age of 6 (7, before 1985). So students normally fin¬ish secondary (complete) general education at the age of 17. There are also twelve-year schools for part-time education and edu¬cation in the arts.

General education curricula normally stipulate thirty-four weeks of study per year and, as a rule, twenty-seven to thirty-eight hours of study per week. The academic year starts on 1 September and runs through the beginning of June. School exami¬nations are scheduled in June. For certain categories of students, the stipulated period of study can be changed according to the specific State educational standard.

A Basic Curriculum for General Education has been developed which lays down the State requirements as to the minimum content of education and the workload of students. The Basic Curriculum designates the compulsory fields of study (Humanities with a special emphasis on Russian Language, Literature, Social Sciences, and Physical Education; Natural Sciences with priority given to Mathematics; and Technology). The Social Sciences can include such subjects as Foreign Languages, Russian History, World History, Economic and Social Geography, Law, Political Science, Economics, etc. The Natural Sciences can cover Biol¬ogy, Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Ecology, etc. Technology normally includes Drawing and a number of disciplines for the imparting of certain professional skills: basic skills of general utility for pupils (Home Economics, Sewing, Cooking, Metal Work, Carpentry, etc.) and, in upper grades, basic skills for the exercise of certain professions.

In addition to these required fields of study, the Basic Curriculum provides for disciplines, which could be added because of being specific to the particular region in which the school is located as well as optional disciplines in accordance with the interests of pupils.

In practice, each school designs its own curriculum, basing it upon the Basic Curriculum.

Russia has well-developed networks of schools offering advanced programs, which are based on the Basic Curriculum and can be offered in a number of ways:

• through schools offering advanced programs in selected disciplines such as foreign languages, mathematics, phys¬ics, etc.;
• through schools with developed out-of-school activities giving a profound mastery of fine arts, philosophy, econom¬ics, sports, and other fields;
• through schools in which senior grades work under the auspices (and tutorship) of higher education institutions and use the academic staff and facilities of the latter.

Primary general education and basic general education are compulsory. On the completion of basic general education (a nine-year programme), students take final examinations (the procedure is called the State final attestation) and are awarded, if they pass, the Certificate of Basic General Education (Attestat ob Osnovnom Obshchem Obrazovanii). As a result of the State final at-testation, students may or may not be encouraged to continue their education. The Certificate entitles its holder to be admitted to secondary (complete) general education or to vocational education, as well as to non-university level higher education.

The Certificate of Secondary (Complete) General Education (Attestat о Srednem (Polnom) Obshchem Obrazovanii; before 1993, the Attestat о Srednem Obrazovanii - Certificate of Secondary Education) is awarded after the completion of an eleven-year school programme and the successful passing of the State final attestation (final examinations). The number of disciplines subject to final examinations should not be fewer than five: two federal compulsory written examinations (composition and mathematics) and no less than three optional examinations at the choice of the student. In addition to the results of the final examinations, school leaving certificates include a supplement listing the grades obtained by students in all the subjects taught during the whole period of education. The old version of the certificate (Attestat о Srednem Obrazovanii) has no supplement, and the grades are listed on the certificate itself. The number of subjects may vary from seventeen to twenty. Final and annual examinations are two-thirds written and one-third oral; examinations taken during the learning process are in the reversed proportion.

The school-leaving certificate (Certificate of Secondary (Complete) General Education) entitles its holder to pursue profes¬sional education: either vocational education or both non-university and university level higher education.

In the last few years, numerous private schools have been established. The authorization to grant nationally recognized certifi¬cates (certificates of the State format) is linked to success in the State accreditation procedures. Certificates awarded by non-accredited institutions (of non-State format) do not grant the right to be admitted to higher education institutions.

HIGHER EDUCATION

There are two kinds of higher education in the Russian Federation:

• Non-university level higher education (educational programs not leading to academic degrees);
• University level higher education (educational programs leading to academic degrees).

Despite the different levels of education, these two kinds of higher education have the following common features: the lists of specialties available through both kinds of higher education are interlinked; the educational programs are convergent in particular with regard to the list and the Volume of specialized disci¬plines; state requirements as to the minimum content of education and to the knowledge and skills of graduates are developed for both kinds of higher education on the basis of secondary (complete) general education; teaching technologies typical of universities are introduced in non-university level higher education.

University Level Higher Education

According to the Standard Statute for University Level Higher Education Establishments adopted by the Government of the Russian Federation on 26 June 1993 and based on the Law On Education, higher education in the country is built upon the following typology of establishments:

Universities: higher education institutions the activities of which are aimed at the development of education, science, and cul¬ture through the conducting of fundamental and applied research and the offering of training programs at all levels of higher, postgraduate, and continuing education in a wide range of natural and social sciences and the humanities. A university must be the leading research and methodological centre in the areas of its activity. Universities are now subdivided into the following groups:

• Universities for Humanities and Sciences;
• Pedagogical Universities (former Pedagogical Institutes);
• Medical Universities (former Medical Institutes);
• Agricultural Universities (former Agricultural Institutes);
• Technical Universities (former Polytechnic and Specialized Institutes);

Academies: higher education institutions the activities of which are aimed at the development of education, science, and culture through the conducting of fundamental and applied research and the offering of training programs at all levels of higher, postgraduate, and continuing education in a single major area of science, technology, or culture. An academy must be the leading research and methodological centre in its area of activity.

Institutes: independent higher education institutions or divisions of universities or academies, which offer educational pro¬grams at all levels of higher, postgraduate, and continuing education in a number of fields of science, technology, and culture and conduct research.

This new typology is replacing the old typology of the former Soviet Union, in which higher education institutions consisted of the following types of establishment:
- Universities - typically offering a broad range of disciplines especially in the humanities and the sciences;
- Polytechnic Institutes - typically offering a variety of technological disciplines;
- Specialized Institutes - typically offering education in only one major discipline, for example, medicine, agriculture, eco¬nomics, teacher education, etc.

The transformation of the old institutions into new institutional types is still in progress. Former Polytechnic Institutes and Specialized Institutes are still trying to broaden their programs and are being renamed Universities or Academies.

Admission Requirements:

Traditionally, a diploma granting admission to university level higher education institutions may be earned at institutions of¬fering secondary (complete) general education and non-university level higher education.

Admission to higher education establishments is competitive. The selection is based on entrance examinations, school leav¬ing certificates, interviews, etc. The entrance examinations are the major component of the selection procedure. The number and the list of entrance tests are stipulated by the admission regulations of given educational institutions. The subjects of the entrance examinations are set by the individual institutions according to the requirements of the faculties to which admission is sought.

Course Program Structure:

Since 1992, Russian higher education has had a multi-level structure, and higher education institutions may confer the following degrees and diplomas: Intermediate Diploma (at least two years of study); Bakalavr Diploma (at least four years of study); Specialist Diploma (five to six years of study); Magistr Diploma (six years of study).

In order to establish the relationship between these qualifications in the future, the Government of the Russian Federation adopted the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of 12 August 1994. It designates three levels of studies:

Level 1 comprises the first two years of studies for the Bakalavr or Specialist Diplomas and is concentrated on compulsory fundamental courses in the given speciality. After mis period, students may either continue their studies or, if they do not want to do so, leave the institution with an Intermediate Diploma;

Level 2 is the continuation of studies for the Bakalavr degree the duration of which is at least another two years. It leads to the four-year Bakalavr degree;

Level 3 represents an educational level common both to the Magistr Diploma and to the Specialist Diploma. Magistr degree programs are based on Bakalavr degree programs, while Specialist Diploma programs are not.